USED TO

Dave worked in a factory from 2000 to 2010. He´s been working in a supermarket since 2010.

Dave says: I used to work in a factory, but now I work in a supermarket.

I used to work / she used to have / they used to be etc.

When I was a child, I used to like chocolate.
I used to read a lot of books but I don´t read much these days.
Liz has got short hair now but it used to be very long.
They used to live in the same street as us, so we often used to see them. But we don´t see them very often these days.
Ann used to have a piano but she sold it a few years ago.

The negative is I didn´t use to...


When I was a child I didn´t use to like tomatoes.
They didn´t use to travel very much in the past.
He usually went to work by car. He didn´t use to walk.
Lamartine Babo used to write songs for Carnival.

The question is did you use to...?


Did you use to play tennis when you lived in that condo?
Where did you use to live before you came here?
How did you use to commute before having a car?


We use used to... only for the past. You cannot say 'I use to...' (present)

I used to play tennis. These days I play golf.
We usually get up early.


(From the book ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR IN USE  - by Raymond Murphy)

PREPOSITIONS: IN - AT - ON - TO (PLACES)

IN


Closed places: in a room, in a shop, in a car, in the water
Open places: in a garden, in a town, in the city centre, in France

Where´s David? - In the kitchen / In the garden / In London.
What´s in that box / in that bag / in that cupboard?
Angela works in a shop / in a bank / in a factory.
I had a swim in the river / in the sea.
Milan is in the north of Italy.
I live in a town but I want to live in the country.

in bed                                                       Where´s Kate? She´s in bed.
in hospital / in prison                                David´s father is ill. He´s in hospital
in a street                                                 I live in a small street near the station.
in the sky                                                 I like to look at the stars in the sky at night.
in the world                                              What´s the largest city in the world?
in a newspaper / in a book                       I read about the accident in the newspaper.
in a photograph / in a picture                    You look sad in this photograph.
in a car / in a taxi                                      Did you come here in your car?
in the middle (of...)                                   There´s a big tree in the middle of the garden.


AT


at the bus stop / at the door / at the traffic light / at the desk (standing or sitting close to something)

There´s somebody at the bus stop / at the door.
The car´s waiting at the traffic light.
We met at the newsstand.
Julia is working at her desk.
The plane lands at the airport.
The train stops at the station.

at the top / at the bottom / at the end (of...)

Write your name at the top of the page.
My house is at the end of the street.
I live at 4A Arlington Road.

at home                                                 Will you be at home this evening?
at work / at school                                 Where´s Kate? She´s at work.
at university / at college                          Helen is studying at university.
at Jane´s house / at my sister´s house / at the doctor´s / at the hairdresser´s etc.
                                                             Where were you yesterday? At my sister´s.
                                                             I saw Tom at the doctor´s.
at a concert / at a party / at a football match etc.
                                                             There weren´t many people at the party.

Note: Often it is possible to use in or at for buildings (hotels, restaurants, etc.):
          We stayed at a nice hotel.        or        We stayed in a nice hotel.



ON


on a shelf / on a plate / on a balcony / on the floor etc...
on a wall / on a door / on the ceiling etc...

There are some books on the shelf and some pictures on the wall.
There are a lot of apples on those trees.
Don´t sit on the grass. It´s wet.
There is a stamp on the envelope.

also on a horse / on a bicycle / on a motorbike:

Who´s that man on the motorbike?

She´s sitting on that old chair.
He´s lying on the sofa.
But: The grandma likes to sit in the armchair.

on a bus / on the first floor / on the way from A to B

on a bus / on a train / on a plane / on a ship
                                                       Did you come here on this bus?
on the ground floor / on the first floor etc.
                                                       The office is on the first floor.
on the way (to...) / on the way home
                                                       I met Ann on the way to work / on the way home.


IN / AT 


be / stay / do something (etc.) in...


Piccadilly Circus is in London.
My brother lives in Italy.
The main shops are in the city centre.

I like reading in bed.

be / stay / do something (etc.) at


The bus is at the airport.
Ann wasn´t at work yesterday.
I met her at a party.
Ann stayed at her borther´s house.


Home


go / come / walk (etc.) home (without 'to')
I´m tired. I´m going home.
Did you walk home?

be / stay / do something (etc.) at home
I´m staying at home this evening.
Where´s Ann? 'At home'


Arrive / get


arrive in a country or town (arrive in Italy / arrive in Paris etc.):
They arrived in England last week.

arrive at other places (arrive at the station / arrive at work etc.)
What time did you arrive at the hotel?

get to (a place)
What time did you get to the hotel?
What time did you get to Paris?

get home / arrive home (no preposition)
I was tired when I got home.    or    I was tired when I arrived home.


TO


go / come / return / walk (etc.) to...


We´re going to London next weekend.
I want to go to Italy.
We walked from my house to the city centre.
What time did you go to bed?
The bus is going to the airport.
Sally didn´t go to work yesterday.
You must come to our house.

(From the book ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR IN USE by Raymond Murphy)

FUTURE TENSE

I´m doing something tomorrow. (For plans and arrangements - I´ve arranged, I´ve planned to do it.)

I´m going to a concert tomorrow. (I´ve even got the tickets already!)
Alice is going to the dentist on Friday. (She has an appointment.)
We´re having a party next weekend. (Everything is prepared!)

I´m going to do something. (I have decided to do it, my intention is to do it.)

I´m going to buy some new books tomorrow.
Sarah is going to sell her car.
I´m not going to have breakfast this morning. I´m not hungry.

Look at the sky! It´s going to rain. (Something is going to happen: it´s clear now that it´s sure to happen.)

will/shall


- Sue travels a lot. Today she´s in Madrid. Tomorrow she will be in Rome. Next week she will be in Tokyo.
- You can phone me this evening. I will be at home.
- We will probably go out tonight. (You aren´t sure yet.)
- I won´t be here tomorrow.
- Don´t drink coffee before you go to bed. You won´t sleep.
- I think I will pass the exam.
- Do you think the exam will be difficult?

* will - when you offer or decide to to something
- My bag is very heavy! - I will carry it for you.
- Bye! I will phone you tomorrow!
- I think we shall win. (Do not use shall with you/they/he/she/it.)
- Tom will be late.

Shall I.../ Shall we...? (Do you think this is a good thing to do? Do you think this is a good idea?)
- It´s warm in this room. Shall I open the window?
- I´m going to a party tonight. What shall I wear?
- It´s a nice day. Shall we go for a walk?
- Where shall we go for our holidays this year?

Present Simple with a Future Meaning

We use the present simple when we talk about timetable, programmes, etc (e.g., for public transport, cinemas, etc.)

- The train leaves Plymouth at 11:30 and arrives in London at 12:45.
- What time does the film begin?
- It´s Wednesday tomorrow.

You can use the present simple for people if their plans are fixed like a timetable:

- I start my new job on Monday.
- What time do you finish work tomorrow?

(Summarized from ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR IN USE by Raymond Murphy)

SOME VERB TENSES

PRESENT SIMPLE (do)


Things that happen all the time or regularly, that are true in general:

- The sun rises in the East.
- We live in Limeira.

How often: We go home every weekend.
                  I play basketball on Sundays.
                  She brings work home every day.


PRESENT CONTINUOUS ( be + -ing)


Something that is happening at or around the time of speaking

- We are learning English.
- I´m teaching.
- He´s reading a very interesting book.


PAST SIMPLE (did)


something that happened in the past and has no consequence now (is finished.)

- Mozart died in 1791.
- Shakespeare wrote many plays.
- I went to the cinema last night.


PAST CONTINUOUS (be + -ing)


Used to say that somebody was in the middle of doing something at a certain time:

I started doing. (past) - I was doing. (past) - I finished doing. (past) - now (0)

- This time last year I was living in Britain.
- What were you doing at 7 p.m. yesterday?
- I was studying for my test when my mom called me.


PRESENT PERFECT (have + past participle)


Used when the action in the past has a result now:

- I´ve lost my keys. (I don´t know when I lost them, but I can´t find them now.)
- Is Sally here? - No, she´s gone out.
- Chico Buarque has written many songs.

Something that has just happened:

- Ouch! I´ve cut my finger!

Something that started in the past and continues until now:

- Have you ever been to Paris?
- Have you seen "Star Wars"?
- Have you heard from George recently?
- Why hasn´t Tom come to school lately?
- She hasn´t come to work for the past (last) few days.
- I haven´t eaten anything since breakfast.
- He hasn´t shown up today.
- Have you had a holiday this year?

- (in the morning):                    Sue has called you this morning.
- (in the afternoon):                  Sue called you this morning.

- It´s the first time I´ve driven a car.
- It´s the second time she has won this prize.

- Have you heard the news yet?
- Yes, Mary has already told me.
- No, I haven´t heard the news yet.


PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS (have + been + -ing)


When something started in the past, continuous in the present and has the probability of conitnuing in the future:

- It has been raining for hours.

For something that has just finished:
- Have you been running?

- How long have you been studying English?
- She´s been playing tennis since she was 8.


PAST PERFECT (had + past participle)


The past before the past:

(She left at 11 pm. I arrived at 11:30 pm.) She had already left when I arrived.

- When we got home, we realised that someone had broken into the house.
- I didn´t know who she was. I had never met her.


PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS (had + been + -ing)


- I saw the floor was wet. It had been raining.
- He was very tired. He had been working hard all day long.
- We had been playing for one hour when it started raining.

(Present Perfect Continuous) I hope the bus comes soon. I´ve been waiting for 20 minutes.
(Past Perfect Continuous)     At last the bus came. I had been waiting for 20 minutes.

(Present Perfect Continuous) He is out of breath. He has been running.
(Past Perfect Continuous)      He was out of breath. He had been running.

(Summarized from the book ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR IN USE by Raymond Murphy)

APOLOGIES, EXCUSES, AND THANKS

Apologies (= saying sorry)


We can apologise (= say sorry) in different ways in different situations:

(I´m) sorry, I beg your pardon (fml). - A general apology, e.g., you close the door in someone´s face, interrupt someone, etc...

I´m very/terribly/so/awfully sorry. - A stronger apology, e.g. you step on someone´s foot or take their coat by mistake.

I´m very/really sorry I´m late. - When you are late for an appointment.

Sorry to keep you waiting. I won´t be long. (= I will talk to you soon) - Someone is waiting to see you and you are busy, e.g. with someone else.

Note: In formal situations (especially in writing), we often use apologise and apology:

I must apologise for (being late.)
I would like to apologise for (the delay. Unfortunately...)
Please accept our apologies for the mistake in your order. We tried to...


Excuses and promises


If the situation is quite important we usually add an explanation or excuse after the apology. An excuse is the reason for the apology, which may or may not be true. (If it is not true, it should still be a reason that people will believe.) Here are some common excuses:

I´m sorry I´m late but I was delayed/held up at the airport.
I´m sorry I´m late, but my train was cancelled.

Note: To be/get delayed or be/get held up (informal) both mean to be late because of a problem that is out of your control.

If you are responsible for the problem, you can offer or promise to do something about it.

I´m sorry about the mess in here. I´ll clear it up. (= I´ll tidy it up.)
I´m sorry about the confusion, but I´ll sort it out. (I´ll solve the problem.)


Reassuring people


When people apologise to us, it is very common to say something to reassure them (= tell them that 'everything is OK'), and that we are not angry. These are all common expressions. Note that we often use two of them to emphasise the fact that 'it´s OK'.

A: I´m sorry I´m late.         B: That´s OK. Don´t worry. or Never mind. It doesn´t matter, or That´s OK. No problem.
                                           


Thanks


These are the most common ways of thanking people in everyday situations:

A: Here´s your pen.                   B: Oh, thank you / thanks (very much).
A: I´ll answer that.                     B: Oh, thanks a lot. (informal)
A: I´ll post those letters for you.       B: Oh, thank you. That´s very kind of you.

If you go to someone´s house for dinner, or stay with people in an English-speaking country, you will need to thank them for their hospitality (= when people are kind and friendly towards their guests). You could say something like this:

Thank you very much for inviting me. It´s been a lovely evening.
Thank you very much for everything. You´ve been very kind.

(from the book English Vocabulary in Use by Stuart Redman - Cambridge University Press)

GO: USES AND EXPRESSIONS

Come vs go


Go usually express a movement away from the position the speaker is now; come expresses a movement towards the speaker.

Imagine you are at school. The time is 9.30 a.m.
I had to go to Jimmy´s to pick up some books; then I went to the post office before I came to school.

Sometimes the speaker is in one place but imagines that they are already in another place. When Thomas meets  Marta in Spain, he invites her to Switzerland. He says:

"Would you like to come and visit me in Bern?" (He imagines he is there and so her movement is towards him.)

We can also imagine that the listener is in a different place. Talking to Marta, Thomas says:

"I´ll come to your flat at 7.30 p.m." (She will be at home, so his movement is towards her.)

Note: It is a similar difference between bring and take:
I think I´ll take my bike to the match and Peter can bring it back here tomorrow.


Different meanings of "go"


+ When you leave a place in order to do an activity, you often express it either with go + ing noun or go (out) + for a + noun. Here are some common example:

We could go shopping.                                  She wants to go (out) for a walk.
We could go riding (on horses)                      She wants to go (out) for a drink.
They went sightseeing.                                   Let´s go (out) for a drive.
They went swimming. (also 'for a swim')        Let´s go (out) for a meal.

+ Go is followed by certain adjectives to describe a change in state (usually to a worse state) with the meaning 'become' (get is also used with some adjectives).

My brother´s hair is going grey, and my father is going bald.
The company went bankrupt last year.
He´ll go mad if you wear his jacket.
My grandmother is going deaf.


+ It is often used to describe the speed something is travelling (also do):

We were going about 80 kph when the accident happened.

+ When you want to say/ask if a road or form of transport takes you somewhere:

          Does this bus go to the National Gallery?
          I don´t thing this road goes to the station.


Expressions


I´ve never tried bungee jumping but I´d love to have a go. (= try it)
How´s it going? (How are you?) And you can use the same question if you want to know if something is easy, difficult, enjoyable, etc. For example, if you are doing an exercise in class, your teacher may ask: How´s it going? (also How are you getting on?)
It´s my go (also it´s my turn). This expression is used in games such as chess or monopoly where you move from one player to another, then back.

(From the book English Vocabulary in Use by Stuart Redman - Cambridge University Press)

GET: USES AND EXPRESSIONS


Meanings


Get is an informal word, so it is more common in spoken English than written English. It has many meanings. Here are some of the basic ones.

receive                                                         I got a letter this morning.
                                                                     You get a certificate at the end of the course.

obtain (sometimes = buy)                             She´s trying to get a new job.
                                                                     Where did you get those shoes?

become (= a change in state)                        It gets dark very early at this time of year.
                                                                    My hands are getting cold.

arrive                                                           When did you get here?
                                                                     I´ll phone you when I get home.

fetch                                                            Could you get the books from the cupboard?
                                                                     She went to get the children from school.


'Get' + past participle


We sometimes use the more informal 'get' + past participle


get married (= marry)                                 She got married in France.
get divorced (= divorce)                             They got divorced last year. (the marriage has ended officially)
get dressed (= dress)                                  I got dressed quickly and went out.
get undressed (= undress)                          He got undressed and got into bed.
get changed (= change clothes)                   When I got home I went to my room and got changed.
get lost (= lose one´s way)                           I got lost on my way to the station.


Common collocations


Get is so common with certain words (often describing a change of state) that it is a good idea to learn them as expressions:

It´s getting hot/cold/dark/light/late/better/worse/busy
I´m getting hot/cold/tired/better/worse/hungry/ready

Note: the expression getting better at something can describe an improvement in your ability to do something, e.g. I´m getting better at English/swimming; it also describes an improvement in your health, e.g. She was very ill but she´s getting better now. (different from getting worse.)


Phrasal verbs and special expressions with 'get'


I get on very well with my sister. (= I have a very good relationship with my sister)
How are you getting on?   (a) (= a general question: how´s life?)
                                        (b) (= what progress are you making, e.g. with your English?)
It´s difficult to get to know people in a foreigh country. (= meet people and make friends)
I want to get rid of all my old records. (= sell them or throw them away or give them away)
My alarm wakes me up at 7 am, but I don´t usually get up (= get out of bed) until 7.15.

from the book English Vocabulary in Use by Stuart Redman - Cambridge University Press

GIVE, KEEP, BREAK, CATCH, SEE


These common verbs have many different meanings. This unit looks at some important meanings of these verbs, and in some cases they combine with specific nouns, e.g. give someone a ring, break the law, etc. You can learn these as expressions.


Give


I´ll give you a ring this evening. (= phone you this evening)
Could you give me a hand? (= help me)
Please give my regards to Paul. (= please say "hello" to him from me) or If you see Paul, please give him my regards.


Keep


The coat will keep you dry; the gloves will keep your hands warm. (= the coat/gloves will help you to stay dry/warm) (keep + noun/pronoun + adjective)
I keep losing my glasses. I keep getting backache. (= I lose my glasses / get backache again and again) (keep + ing)
Please keep in touch. (= don´t forget to stay in contact, eg. phone or write to me sometimes)
The school keeps a record (= clear written information) of the number of times that students are absent.


Break


He broke the world record again. (= created a new record, e.g. He ran the 100 metres in 9.85 seconds, which is 0.1 seconds faster than anyone else)
Most people break the law at some point in their life. (= do something wrong/against the law)
In my first lesson with a new class, I usually do something to break the ice. (= to make people feel more relaxed when they first meet strangers)


Catch


We can catch a bus down the road. (= take a bus/travel by bus)
How did you catch that cold? (= get that cold/virus)
Catch the ball and throw it to James.


See


A: This part of the picture doesn´t look right compared with the other part.
B: Yes, I see what you mean. (= I understand what you are saying)

A: Do you think we need to hire a car?
B: I don´t know. I´ll see (= I´ll ask and find out) what the others say.

I don´t/can´t see the point of practising six hours a day. (= I don´t understand the reason for practising six hours a day)

(from the book English Vocabulary in Use by Stuart Redman - Cambridge University Press)

MAKE, DO, HAVE, TAKE


There are many common expressions with these verbs, and often they are different in other languages, so you need to learn them.


Things we make


a mistake                              He made a few mistakes in the exam.
a meal (prepare, cook)         I had to make my own dinner last night.
money (become rich)            He made a lot of money when he worked in America.
friends                                  It´s not always easy to make friends in a foreign country.
a decision                             We must make a decision before 6 pm;
a noise                                 I can´t work when the children make a lot of noise.
progress (U)                        Her English is good now; she has made a lot of progress.


Things we do


homework (U)                          I forgot to do my English homework last night.
the housework (U)                    My mother does all the housework in our house.
(study) subjects                        Did you do English at school?
a course                                   I did a one-week course in word processing.
the shopping (buy food)            I always do the shopping at the weekend.
research (U)                             He´s doing research in physics at Rome University.
(someone) a favour                   Can you do me a favour and lend me some coffee?
something/anything/nothing         I didn´t do anything last night. That boy has done nothing all day.
                                                 She must have done something to him. He´s very angry.


Things we have


a rest                                        They had a long rest after the game.
food and drink                          I had steak but Paul just had a cup of tea.
a drink                                      Let´s have a drink before dinner.
a bath/a shower                        I always have a bath when I get up.
a party                                     I´m having a party for my birthday.
a baby                                     Mary is having a baby next month.
a (nice/great/terrible) time         We had a very nice time in Switzerland last year.


Things we take


an exam (also "do an exam")      I´m going to take four exams next month.
a photo                                     She took lots of photos on holiday.
a decision (also "make")            I´m not very good at taking decisions.
a shower (also "have")              I´m just going to take a shower before lunch.
a bus/train/plane/taxi                 We were late, so we took a taxi to the airport.

NOTE: Notice the use of be + adjective in these expressions:

She was lucky.               I´m hungry.                 I´m thirsty.


(From English Vocabulary in Use by Stuart Redman - Cambridge University Press)

PREPOSITION + NOUN


Common patterns


There are many expressions formed by a preposition + noun, and sometimes a preposition is used with a particular meaning in a number of expressions, so they are very common.

A book by Stephen King, a film by Steven Spielberg, a song by Elton John.
You can go for a walk, for a drive, for a run, for a swim
You can go in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening (but at night)
You can travel by car, by plane, by bus, by coach, by train, by taxi (but on foot)
I heard it on the radio; I saw it on TV; I spoke to her on the phone (but I read it in the newspaper, in a magazine)
The man in the dark suit; the woman in the red dress.


Fixed expressions


Sometimes it is difficult to know why a particular preposition is used, and you must learn these as fixed expressions.

I took his pen by mistake.
I did all the work by myself. (but on my own)
The shoes are made by hand.
The workers are on strike.
I met them by chance.
The children are on holiday.
He broke the plate by accident.
He broke the plate on purpose.
There are two million out of work.
There are at least fifty people at the party.


In time or on time?


Sometimes two prepositions can be used with the same noun, but the meaning is different.

Lessons begin at 8.30 and I always arrive on time. (= at 8.30)
Lessons begin at 8.30 and I always get there in time. (= before 8.30; I´m not late)

In the end we went home. (= finally, after a long period)
At the end of the book they get married.

The two men are in business. (= they are businessmen)
The two men are in Germany on business. (= they are there for work and not for a holiday.)

I´ll see you in a moment. (= very soon)
I can´t speak to you at the moment. (= right now)

(From the book English Vocabulary in Use by Stuart Redman - Cambridge University Press)

ZERO AFFIXATION


What is zero affixation?


Many words in English can funtion as a noun and verb, or noun and adjective, or verb and adjective, with no change in the form. The meaning is not always the same, but this unit looks at examples where the words do have the same meaning.


What´s the answer? (noun)
Answer the question. (verb)

I must clean my room. (verb)
It´s a clean room. (adjective)

I don´t like the cold. (noun)
I don´t like cold weather. (adjective)

I didn´t reply to the letter. (verb)
I wrote a reply to the letter. (noun)

Other examples: ache (v, n), damage (v, n), dry (v, adj)




Noun and verb


You may know these words in one form but not the other:
smile, laughm increase, dream, smell, taste, rain, queue, brake, diet, guess, ring, push, murder, stay, drink, rest, look, cost, wait. 




Which verb?


When you use these words as nouns, you need to choose the correct verb to use with it.

Verb                                                              Noun


We stayed in Paris for a short time.                We had a short stay in Paris.
We rested for a while.                                   We had a short rest.
She braked quickly.                                       She put on the brakes quickly.
He needs to diet.                                           He needs to go on a diet.
I´m going to ring him.                                     I´m going to give him a ring.
I looked in the paper.                                    I had a look in the paper.
He pushed me.                                             He gave me a push.
I dreamt about you last night.                        I had a dream about you last night.

(From the book English Vocabulary in Use by Stuart Redman - Cambridge University Press)

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES


Suffixes change word class, e.g. from verb to noun or noun to adjective, but they can also change meaning.


Noun or verb + suffix


Noun or verb                              Suffix               Adjectives


danger, fame                                -ous                  dangerous, famous
music, politics                              - al                    musical, political
industry, economics                                              industrial, economical
cloud, fog, sun, dirt                      - y                    cloudy, foggy, sunny, dirty
attract, create                               - ive                  attractive, creative

Note:  Sometimes there is a spelling change. Here are common examples:
double the consonant: sun/sunny; fog/foggy
leave out the final "e": create/creative; fame/famous
leave out the final "s" before "-al": politics/political; economics/economical
change "y" to "i" before "-al": industry/industrial




-able


This suffix (also -ible in some words) is used to form many adjectives from nouns or verbs:

enjoyable, comfortable, knowledgeable, suitable


Quite often, -able (and -ible) has the meaning "can be done". For example, something that is washable "can be washed". Other examples include:

drinkable, comprehensible, reliable


Words ending -able quite often express the opposite meaning by adding the prefix un-


undrinkable, unreliable, unbreakable, unsuitable, uncomfortable


Words ending -ible add the prefix in-


incomprehensible, inflexible, inedible




-ful and -less


The suffix -ful often means "full of" + the meaning of the adjective: careful, helpful, painful, useful, thoughtful.


The suffix -less means "without" + the meaning of the adjective: careless, painless, useless, thoughtless, jobless, homeless


Note:  You can see that -ful and -less are often used with the same words to form opposites. This is not always true.


(From the book English Vocabulary in Use - by Stuart Redman - Cambridge University Press

NOUN SUFFIXES


Verb + suffix


Many nouns are formed this way.

Verb                                Suffix                   Noun


improve                            -ment                   improvement
manage                             -ment                   management
elect                                 -ion                      election
discuss                             -ion                      discussion
inform                              -ation                    information
organise                           -ation                    organisation
jog                                  -ing                        jogging
spell                                -ing                        spelling

Note: Sometimes there is a spelling change. The most common is the omission of the final "e" before the suffix "-ion" or "-ation": translate/translation; organise/organisation.




Adjective + suffix


Nouns are also formed by adding a suffix to an adjective. Two suffixes often added to adjectives to form nouns are "-ness" and "-ity".

Adjective                        Suffix                    Noun


weak                              -ness                      weakness
happy                             -ness                      happiness
dark                               -ness                      darkness
stupid                             -ity                         stupidity
punctual                         -ity                         punctuality
similar                            -ity                         similarity


Pronunciation


The addition of these suffixes may change the pronunciation.

Nouns ending "-ion" or "ity" have the main stress on the syllable before, so the pronunciation may be different from the verb or adjective.

Verb                    Noun                 Adjective              Noun


educate                education            similar                   similarity
translate               translation            stupid                   stupidity
discuss                discussion            punctual                punctuality


-er/-or and -ist

These are common noun suffixes added to existing nouns or verbs, and they describe people and their jobs.

-er                    -er                    -or                    -ist


dancer             driver               actor                artist
singer              manager           director           economist
murderer        footballer          tranlator         psychologist
farmer            employer           operator         journalist


Note: Notice the common spelling changes: translate/translator; operate/operator; economy/economist;  psychology/psychologist.


From the book English Vocabulary in Use by Stuart Redman (Cambridge University Press)






          

PREFIXES


With the meaning "not"


Prefixes (un-, in-, il-, ir-, and dis-) are often used to give adjectives (and some verbs and nouns) a negative meaning. Here are some common examples:

happy - unhappy
possible - impossible
correct - incorrect
like - dislike
legal - illegal
regular - irregular

UN- is used with many different words, e.g., unfriendly, unable, unbearable, unemployed, untidy

IM- is used before some words beginning with M or P, e.g., impolite, impatient


IL- is used before some words beginning with L, e.g., illegible


IR- is only used before some words beginning with R, e.g., irresponsible


DIS- is used before some adjectives, e.g., dishonest, and a few verbs, e.g., dislike, disagree


IN- is used before a limited number of words, e.g. invisible


Note: A prefix does not normally change word stress, e.g., happy / unhappy; possible / impossoble


Verb prefixes: un- and dis-


These prefixes have two meanings: they can have a negative meaning (as above), but they can also mean "the opposite of and action" or "to reverse an action". This meaning is used with certain verbs.

I locked the door when I left, but I lost the key, so I couldn´t unlock it when I got back.

I had to pack my suitcase very quickly, so when I unpacked at the hotel, most of my clothes looked terrible.

The plane appeared in the sky, then suddenly disappeared behind a cloud.

In the morning you get dressed; when you go to bed, you get undressed.


Other verb prefixes with specific meanings


re- (again)     My homework was terrible, so I had to redo it.
                     The shop closed down but will reopen next month.
                     I failed my exam but I can retake (or redo/resit) it next year.

over- (too much)     I think my boss is overdoing it at the moment. (= working too hard; also overwork)
                               I went to bed very late and I overslept this morning.
                               The shop assistant overcharged me.

mis- (badly or incorrectly)     I´m afraid I misunderstood what he said.
                                             Two of the students misread the first question.


(from the book English Vocabulary in Use) by Stuart Redman (Cambridge)


More prefixes:


un-, im-, il-, in-, ir-, dis-, non-, anti-, mis-, de-, counter-, co-, over-, out-, ex-, re-, under-, a-, hyper-, mal-. mono-, neo-


unattainable, non-existent, illegitimate, irresistible, inaccessble, unprepared, unaware, inexpensive, unconscious, intolerant, unlikely, improbable, dissatisfied, impatient, uncomplicated, unable, incapable, unenthusiastic, illegible, irrational, imperfect, non-resident


undo, disapprove, anticlockwise, misunderstand, disused, misused, unused, debriefing, miscast, unwrap, disembark, decentralize, anticlimax, disprove, declassify, disincentive, unconfirmed, dismount, undamaged, uncommon, unemployment, depersonalize, misfire, anticyclone


co-worker, overbalance, counterbalance, co-pilot, counterclain, co-author, overpriced, counterattack, overestimate, overreact, co-director, co-operate, overanxious, counter-espionage, overboard, oversimplify, coeducational, overdue, overdose


outpouring, ex-wife, outlast, outvote, redirect, undercooked, reoganize, ex-boyfriend, re-elect, undermine, outsize, redistribute, underexposure, outstay, reclaim, reunite, reassure, underclothes, underachiever, reintegrate


hyperactive, amoral, malnutrition, neo-Nazi, malformation, apolitical, hypersensitive, monosyllable, neoclassical, hypercritical, malfuncion, asymetrical, maladjusted, hypermarket, monotone


(from the book Recycling Advanced English - by Clare West (Georgian Press)


Some words with "out" and "over"


Outbid: to offer more money than another person in order to buy something, e.g., at an auction (sobrepujar num lance ou licitação)

Overbid: to offer to pay too much for something in relation to its value (oferecer mais do que vale; cobrir o lance ou oferta)

Overcharge: to charge too much money for something, usually deliberately (cobrar em excesso)

Outmanoeuvre:  to do better than an opponent, etc by acting more skillfully and cleverly (superar em estratégia, "passar a perna", vencer em habilidade)

Outnumber: to be greater in number than somebody/something (exceder em número)

Outrun: to develop faster than something, to run faster than somebody/spmething (correr mais que alguém, ultrapassar, exceder, deixar para trás)

Overrun: to continue beyond or exceed the time allowed or the expected cost (exceder, ultrapassar)

Outstrip: to become larger, more important, etc than somebody/something

Oversubscribe: if a company issues shares on the stock market and they are oversubscribed, the demand for shares is more than the number of shares available.

Overtake: to increase in number or amount so as to be more than something else

Outvote: to defeat somebody by gaining a larger number of votes (vencer por votos)


"Over" is used, among other things, to say that something is higher than something else.
"Out" is used, among other things, to say that something is not inside something, and to talk about leaving or move away from a place. To say that something goes beyond a particular level or number.