NEED(N´T), DON´T HAVE TO AND MUSTN´T

Mustn´t and needn´t / don´t have to
We use mustn´t to say that something is not allowed and needn´t (or don´t need to) or don´t have to to say that something is not necessary:
* You mustn´t walk on the grass here.
* You mustn´t put anything on the shelves until the glue has set hard.
* They proved that watchig a chess match needn´t be boring.
* We needn´t go into details now, but we seem to agree on the general principles.

Need, needn´t, and don´t need to / don´t have to
Need can be used as a modal verb (before a bare infinitive) or as an ordinary verb. Compare:
* You needn´t speak so loudly. (= modal verb)
* She needn´t come with us if she doesn´t want to. (= modal verb)
* She´s thirsty. She needs a drink. (= ordinary verb)
* Jim and Bob are here. They say they need to see you urgently. (= ordinary verb)
When it is a modal verb need is most commonly used in negative sentences, although it is sometimes also used in questions:
* Need you go home so soon? (or, more commonly, Do you have to...?)
* Need I say more? (or, more commonly, Do I have to say...?)

We can use either needn´t or don´t have to when we say that is unnecessary to do something:
* It would be good to see you, but you needn´t (or don´t have to) come if you´re busy.
* You needn´t (or don´t have to) whisper. Nobody can hear us.

To give permission not to do something we can use either needn´t or don´t need to:
* You needn´t cut the grass, I´ll do it later.
* You don´t need to cut the grass, I´ll do it later.

To talk about a general necessity, we prefer don´t need to:
* You don´t need to be over 18 to get into a disco.

Didn´t need to / didn´t have to and need not have
When we say that it was not necessary to do something in the past, and it wasn´t done, we use didn´t need to or didn´t have to. To show that we think something that was done was not, in fact, necessary we use need not have:
* Chris and June phoned to say that they couldn´t come to eat, so I didn´t need/have to cook dinner. (= I didn´t cook dinner)
* I needn´t have cooked dinner. Just as it was ready, Chris and June phoned to say that they couldn´t come to eat. (= I did cook dinner)

Source: Advanced Grammar in Use - Martin Hewings - Cambridge.

NEED, NEEDN´T, DON´T NEED TO...

NEEDN´T (NEED NOT)

I needn´t (do something) = it is not necessary to do it, I don´t need to do it:
* I needn´t clean the windows. They aren´t very dirty.
* You needn´t go to the bank today. I can give you some money.

You can also say don´t need to... (= needn´t)
* I don´t need to clean the windows.
* You don´t need to go to the bank today.

Source: Essential Grammar in Use - Raymond Murphy - Cambridge




NEEDN´T
You needn´t do something" - it is not necessary that you do it, you don´t need to do it.
* You can come with me if you like, but you needn´t come if you don´t want to. (= it is not necessary for you to come.)
* We´ve got plenty of time. We needn´t hurry. (= it is not necessary to hurry)

Instead of needn´t, you can use don´t/doesn´t need to. So you can say:
* We needn´t hurry.     or      We don´t need to hurry.
Remember that we say "don´t need to do", but "needn´t do" (without to)

Needn´t and don´t need to are similar to don´t have to
* We´ve got plenty of time. We don´t have to hurry.


NEEDN´T HAVE (DONE)
* That shirt isn´t dirty. You needn´t wash it.
* Why did you wash that shirt? It wasn´t dirty. You needn´t have washed it.


Didn´t need to (do) and needn´t have (done)

I didn´t need to ... = it was not necessary for me to... (and I knew this at the time):
* I didn´t need to get up early, so I didn´t.
* I didn´t need to get up early, but it was a lovely morning, so I did.

I needn´t have (done) something = I did something but now I know that it was not necessary.
* I got up very early because I had to get ready to go away. But in fact it didn´t take me long to get ready. So, I needn´t have got up so early. I could have stayed in bed longer.

Source: English Grammar in Use - Raymond Murphy - Cambridge

2nd CONDITIONAL

2nd. Conditional: tentative, hypothetical, and unreal conditions (present or future time reference)


If we caught the 10 o´clock train, we would (could, might, etc) get there by lunchtime.
If I came into a fortune, I would give up working.
If I knew how it worked, I could tell you what to do.

Exercise: complete the sentences

If you explained the situation to your solicitor, he .............................................................................
Perhaps he ............................................................, if you spoke to him yourself.
If you changed your job, you............................................................................................................
If you went to see a doctor, he ........................................................................................................
If we bought a house in the country, we ...........................................................................................
If they came to see us in London, we ...............................................................................................
I´m sure he would take the job on if ................................................................................................
If you took the shoes back to the shop, they ....................................................................................
If you read the book a second time, you ..........................................................................................

Exercise: answer the questions with conditional statements (2nd)

What cities or other places of interest would you visit if you went to America?
What would you do (or not do) if you could live your life again?
What would you say or do if someone called you a fool?
If a visitor came to your town, what places would you advise him to see?
What famous person would you like to meet if you had the chance?
Which country would you choose if you decided to live abroad?
What changes would you make in your house, assuming you had the money?
What would you do if you saw a house on fire?
What would you do if you had something stolen?
Which books would you take with you if you went to live on a desert island?

Exercise: Turn the following sentences into 2nd conditional:
Example: We don´t have any wood, so we can´t light a fire. If we had some wood, we could light a fire.

Since she doesn´t love him, she won´t marry him.
Our teacher explains things clearly, so we understand his lessons.
As I haven´t a watch, I casn´t tell you the time.
Britain doesn´t export enough, so she has a constant balance of payments problem.
Since I know the meaning of the word, I don´t have to look it up.
This exercise is easy, so everyone will get the correct answers.
I know the answer so I can tell you.
We haven´t any matches so we can´t light the fire.

wish, would rather, It´s time + noun clause with past tense:
I wish I were rich (If only I were rich!)
I´d rather you told me frankly what you think.
It´s time (it´s about time, it´s high time) we left.
I wish you would hurry up.
I wish it would stop raining soon.

Source: Advanced English Practice - B.D. Graver - Oxford

WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE FUTURE

For plans and arrangements:

I´m doing something tomorrow. - I´ve arranged, I´ve planned to do it.
I´m going to a concert tomorrow.
Alice is going to the dentist on Friday. (She has an appointment)
We are having a party next weekend. (Everything has already been planned.)

Decision, intention to to something:

I´m going to do something. - I´ve decided to do it, my intention is to do it.
I´m going to buy some new books tomorrow.
Sarah is going to sell her car.
I´m not going to have breakfast this morning. I´m not hungry.

Something is going to happen; it´s clear now that it´s sure to happen:

Look at the sky! It´s going to rain!

will/shall - Simple future

Sue travels a lot. Today she´s in Madrid. Tomorrow she´ll be in Rome. Next week she´ll be in Tokyo.
You can phone me this evening. I´ll be at home.
We will probably go out tonight.
I won´t be here tomorrow.

Don´t drink coffee before you go to bed. You won´t sleep.
I think I will pass the exam.
I don´t think it will rain this afternoon.
Do you think the exam will be difficult?

Also used when you offer or decide to do something:

'My bag is very heavy.' - 'I´ll carry it for you.'
'Bye! I´ll phone you tomorow!'
(the phone rings) - 'I´ll answer it!'

Shall (you can say 'I shall' (= I will) and 'we shall' (= we will)

Do not use shall with you/they/he/she/it:
Tom will be late.


Shall I/we...? = Do you think this is a good thing to do? Do you think this is a good idea?
It´s warm in the room. Shall I open the window?
I´m going to a party tonight. What shall I wear?
It´s a nice day. Shall we go for a walk?
Where shall we go for our holidays this year?

Present Simple with a future meaning: we use the present simple when we talk about timetable, programmes, etc... (e.g. for public transport, cinema, etc...)
The train leaves Plymouth at 11:30 and arrives in London at 12:45.
What time does the film begin?
It´s Wednesday tomorrow.

We can use the present simple for people if their plans are fixed like a timetable:
I start my new job on Monday.
What time do you finish work tomorrow?

Source: Essential Grammar in Use - Raymond Murphy - Cambridge

TOO AND ENOUGH

TOO: used before adjectives and adverbs; to a higher degree or more than it´s allowed, desirable, good, necessary, etc...

Don´t drive too fast.
It´s too good to be true!
These shoes are too small for me.
The journey is too long, we will get tired.

ENOUGH: usually used in front of plural or uncountable nouns; as many or as much of something as necessary or desirable; sufficient.

Have you made enough copies?
There are twenty students and only 12 chairs.There aren´t enough chairs for all the students.
Surely 15 minutes is enough time for you to have a bath.
Is there enough room for me in the car?
He hasn´t got enough money to buy a sandwich.

ENOUGH + NOUN
- Is there enough sugar in your coffee?
- We wanted to play football but we didn´t have enough players.
- Don´t you have enough money to buy a car?

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH
- It isn´t warm enough to stay outside.
- Is the radio loude enough for you?
- That coat isn´t long enough.
- He isn´t tall enough to reach the shelf.

ENOUGH WITHOUT A NOUN
- I´ve got some money, but not enough to buy a car.
- I don´t want anything else. I´ve had enough.
- I don´t go out enough.

SO AND SUCH

SO (THAT) + adjectives / adverbs

I was so well this morning that I stayed longer in bed.
I was so tired this morning that I stayed longer in bed.

SO + little / few / much / many

There was so little money left that I decided not to travel.
There were so few passengers that the flight was cancelled.

There was so much problem with the computer that the company bought a new one.
There were so many songs in the MP3 that it was difficult to listen to all of them.


SUCH + plural nouns and uncountable nouns

They were such nice people!
We have such beautiful weather in Limeira!
He wears such nice clothes.
He writes such interesting books!

SUCH A / AN + singular nouns

We`ve had such a nice meal.
Ann is such a nice person!
It was such an unusual scene!
It´s such an ugly city.
I´ve got such a lot of things to do.

I didn´t enjoy the book. The story was so stupid.
I didn´t enjoy the book. It was such a stupid story!

FIRST CONDITIONAL - OPEN CONDITIONS

Ex: If we catch the 10 o´clock train, we shall (can, may, etc...) get there by lunchtime.
      If you wake up before me, give me a call.

In the above sentences, the conditional clauses represent "open" conditions; that is, conditions that may or may not be fulfilled. We make such statements when the action or event mentioned in the conditional clause is being actively considered, or is under discussion or appears likely to happen. Such statements can enen be comments or decisions already taken.

Conditions of this sort are sometimes labelled "probable", but it is important to note that the probability of the condition being fulfilled often exists only in the mind of the speaker. If, for example, it seems likely that someone is going to do something foolish or dangerous, we give a warning: "If you touch that plate, you´ll burn your hand." Only a fool would fulfill the condition in these circumstances.

The commonest sequence of tenses in this type of sentence is:
(If) present tense, (Main) future or modal verb or imperative.

Exercise: write conditional sentences like the ones above, using the given fact, and adding a suitable completion, eg. If he goes to England, he will have to learn English.

It looks as if those shoes in the window are my size.
Don´t drop the vase!
It looks like being fine tomorrow.
My father has suggested that I change my job.
It seems that we´ll be late for the cinema.
Don´t lose my library book!
You may meet some friends of mine in London.
He expects to pass his exam.
They´re hoping it will be a baby boy.
I anticipate getting a rise in salary next year.

Exercise: complete the sentences, following one of the patterns for contditionals of type 1:
We will just manage to catch the train if............................................................................
If I see him again, I .........................................................................................................
I will accept your explanation only if ...............................................................................
If my bank manager will lend me the money, ...................................................................
What will happen if ........................................................................................................
If you don´t hear from me by next Friday, ......................................................................
If your work continues to improve, ................................................................................
................................................................. only if you will promise not to tell anyone else.
Look up the answeer in the key only id...........................................................................
What will he say if .........................................................................................................
If the worst should come to the worst, ...........................................................................
Give me time and ..........................................................................................................

Source: Advanced English Practice - B.D. Graver - Oxford.

Some more examples:
If she can´t come to see us, then we´ll have to go and see her.
If we go by bus, it will be cheaper. (It will be cheaper if we go by bus.)
If you don´t hurry, we will miss the train. (We will miss the train if you don´t hurry.)
If I don´t feel well tomorrow, I will stay home.
If you pass the exam, you will get a certificate.

If you get a high paying job, you won´t have to work as hard.
If you get a high paying job, you´ll be able to travel first class.
If you get a high paying job, you might have to pay higher taxes.
If you get a high paying job, you´ll be able to donate more to charities.
If you get a high paying job, you´ll be able to buy things you want.
If you get a high paying job, you might be on TV or in the newspapers.
If you get a high paying job, people will ask you for a loan.
If you get a high paying job, you will have more free time.
If you get a high paying job, you´ll be able to buy your parents a new car.

If you don´t have to work as hard, you´ll have a lot more free time.
If you eat less sugar, you may feel more relaxed.
If you eat less sugar, you might feel healthier.
If you walk to work everyday, you might feel healthier.
If you walk to work everyday, you may feel more relaxed.
If you wak to work everyday, you´ll stay in shape without joining a gym.
If you don´t get enough sleep, you won´t be able to stay awake in class.
If you own a pet, you may feel more relaxed.
If you don´t get married, you will have more money to spend on yourself.
If you eat less sugar, you´ll lose weight.

If you buy a large dog, you´ll have to take it out for walks everyday.
If you take it out for walks everyday, you might have an accident.
If you have an accident, you may have to go to the hospital.
If you go to the hospital, you won´t be able to take care of your dog,
If you aren´t able to take care of your dog, you´ll probably have to give it away.

If yo fall in love, you´ll feel jealous sometimes.
If you fall in love, you will feel better about yourself.
If you go on a diet, you´ll feel hungry a lot.
If you go on a diet, you´ll have to give up your favourite snack.
If you inherit a lot of money, you´ll be able to buy expensive clothes.
If you inherit a lot of money, you´ll get requests for loans.
If you move to a foreign country, you´ll have to learn a new lnaguage.
If you move to a foreign country, you´ll lose touch with old friends.

Sources> several books.

ZERO CONDITIONAL - CAUSE AND EFFECT

Ex.: If you heat ice, it melts.
      If I make a promise, I keep it.

These sentences are statements of universal truth or general validity, and in this type of sentencem "if" corresponds closely in meaning to "when(ever)". Statements in this form appear in factual discussions or explanatory (Particularly scientific and technical) material. The tenses in both the conditional and the main clause are the same. The sentence "If I make a promise may be written in the past tense with a similar correspondence between the verb forms in the two clauses: "If I made a promise, I kept it."

Exercise: answer the questions like in the examples above.

What happens if flowers don´t get any water?
What must a motorist do if the traffic lights are at red?
What materials do you need if you want to write a letter?
What do you like to drink if you are very thirsty?
Who do business men go to see if they want to borrow money?
What do you expect a teacher to do if you make a mistake?
What must one have if one wants to visit a foreign country?
Who do people go to see if they feel ill?
What happens if there is a power failure?
How do people dress in your country if they work in an office?

(Advanced English Practice - B.D. Graver - Oxford)

Some more examples:
If you get there before eight, we can catch the early train.
If you get there before eight, we catch the early train.
If I´m earning well, I pay lunch for my friends.
If you´re hungry, have something to eat.
If the phone rings, can you answer it, please?
Do you mind if I use your phone?
I´m going to the concert if I can get a ticket.

If you get a high paying job, you pay dinner for us.
If you get a high paying job, you can travel first class.
If you get a high paying job, you pay higher taxes.
If you get a high paying job, you make more friends.
If you get a high paying job, you buy what you want.

If you go out, you must take and umbrella.
                           should
                           ought to
                           needn´t
                           may
                           can

Source: several books!

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Uncountable nouns are those you cannot say "one, two, three..."

Examples: water, air, rice, salt, plastic, money, music, tennis, luggage, baggage, accomodation, equipment, information, soap, toothpaste, washing powder, washing-up liquid, polish, paper, sugar, spaghetti, butter, flour, soup, advice, knowledge, progress, research, work, cloth, leather, wool, wood, concrete, coal, oil, petrol, gas, weather, hair, news, furniture, patience, courage, determination, goodwill, charm, stamina, reliabilty, loyalty, energy, experience, commitment, talent, creativity, intelligence, training, behaviour, damage, permission, scenery. traffic...

We can use SOME to express quantity of water, air, rice, money, accomodation, news, etc...

How to make these nouns plural:

a glass of water,
a breath of fresh air,
a bowl of rice, sugar, flour, spaghetti
a pinch of salt,
a piece of music,
a game of tennis.
three pieces of luggage (baggage),
pieces of equipment,
pieces (bits) of information,
a bar of soap,
a tube of toothpaste,
a box of washing powder,
a bottle of (liquid),
a can of polish,
pieces of paper,
a bar of butter,
a dish of soup,
a piece of advice,
a piece of cheese,
a can of oil,
a cup of coffee,
a bar of chocolate
a loaf of bread,
pieces of furniture
a slice of cake, toast, bread, meat, cheese
cartons of milk
a bunch of flowers
a pair of shoes, gloves, pants (trousers), socks, scissors

How many pieces of luggage have you got with you?
I heard a really useful bit of information yesterday.
We have certainly had a good spell (period, season) of summer weather this year.
Did you hear that rumble (noise) of thunder?
Yes, I did. It came almost immediately after the flash of lightning.
I heard a sharp clap (noise) of thunder, then a few rumbles in the distance.
A sudden gust of wind turned my umbrella inside out.
There was a sudden shower of rain this morning.
Did you feel a spot of rain?

Look at the ladybird on that blade of grass!
What happened? Look at that cloud of smoke hanging over the town!
She blew little puffs of smoke out of her cigarette straight into my face.
Put another lump of coal on the fire, please. (lump can also be used with sugar)

I had an amazing stroke of luck this morning.
I´ve never seen him do a stroke of work. (only in negative sentences)
I´ve never seen him in such a fit of temper before.
The donkey is the basic means of transport on the island.
Tights must be the most useful article/ item of clothing ever invented.
There was an interesting item of news about France on TV last night.

The phrase a state of can serve to make uncountable nown singular. The nouns used with state are usually abstract and include chaos, emergency, tension, confusion, health, uncertainty, poverty, agitation, etc...

Source: English Vocabulary in Use - Cambridge

INDIRECT REQUESTS

Used to soften requests, to ask politely.

Is it OK if I use your phone?
Do you mind if I use your CD burner?
Do you mind my using your CD burner?
Do you mind me using your CD burner?
Would it be OK if I picked it up on Friday night?
Would you mind letting me use your laptop?
I wonder if I could borrow some money
I was wondering if you´d mind lending me your car.

Open the door! (Imperative, direct request)
Please open the door.
Open the door, will you?
Could you open the door?
Would you open the door?
Will you open the door?
Can you open the door?

Would you turn on the TV, please?
Could you pay attention, please?
Could you tell me the time?
Would you (please) be kind enough as to open the window?
Would you (please) be so kind as to open the window?
Would you like to come to my party?
Would you like a cup of tea?

Can you tell me how long you have worked for Carrefour?
I´d like you to tell me when you graduated from university.
Do you know if your present employer would be prepared to give you a reference?
I would be most grateful if you could give me the directions to your company.
Could you also tell me what time I am expected to be there?
I´d be interested to know when the final date for applications is.

Direct question: Is there a language school or university in your town which runs classes during the summer?
Indirect question: Do you know if there os a language school or university in your town which runs classes during the summer?

Direct question: Where is the nearest airport?
Indirect question: Could you tell me where the nearest airport is?

Direct question: How much would it cost to rent a flat?
Indirect question: Can you give me an idea of how much it would cost to rent a flat?

Direct question: When do you expect to go to the mountains?
Indirect question: Let me know when you expect to go to the mountains.

Where is the bank?                                       Could you tell me where the bank is?
What timedoes the bank open?                     Do you know what time it opens?
How often do the buses leave for the city?     Can you tell me how often the buses leave for the city?
Where are the restrooms?                             Do you know where the restrooms are?


Sources: English Structure Practice - Gordon Drummond
              Cambridge Business Benchmark - Guy Brook-Hart
              Interchange 3rd Edition - Jack C. Richards - Cambridge
              Complete First Certificate - Guy Brook-Hart - Cambridge